The National Questions
di Riccardo Piroddi
Abstract: Dopo il Congresso di Vienna del 1815, l’Europa attraversò una crisi dell’ordine internazionale tradizionale, segnata dal conflitto tra grandi potenze e dalla crescita del nazionalismo. Questo fenomeno si manifestò sia in forma civica, fondata su cittadinanza e uguaglianza politica, sia in forma etnoculturale, basata su identità linguistiche, religiose e razziali, sfociando spesso in ideologie escludenti come l’antisemitismo. Il nazionalismo alimentò movimenti di indipendenza e unificazioni, come quelle di Italia e Germania. In Italia, l’unificazione fu sostenuta da visioni politiche diverse: monarchica (Cavour), repubblicana (Mazzini), federalista (Gioberti, Cattaneo) e socialista-populista (Garibaldi). Mazzini collegava politica e religione, promuovendo un’azione morale e collettiva per la libertà. Cattaneo proponeva un’Italia federale e pluralista, anticipando l’idea di una “Europa unita”. Negli Stati Uniti, la Guerra Civile mise in luce la contraddizione tra democrazia e schiavitù. Il conflitto, legato anche a differenze economiche tra Nord industriale e Sud agrario, portò all’abolizione della schiavitù, rafforzando il potere federale e avviando il lungo cammino verso l’uguaglianza dei diritti civili. In Germania, la leadership di Bismarck guidò l’unificazione attraverso la forza militare e la diplomazia, mentre pensatori come Treitschke sostennero un nazionalismo centralizzato e autoritario, fondato su ideologie razziali e sull’espansione coloniale. Questo contribuì alla formazione di uno Stato tedesco potente e coeso ma anche alla diffusione di tendenze escludenti che influenzarono profondamente il futuro europeo.
The political order established by the Congress of Vienna in 1815, which sought to stabilize Europe after the Napoleonic Wars, ultimately led to a profound crisis in the traditional international system. This period saw increasing tension between the great powers and the rise of competing ideologies, particularly nationalism. The unresolved national questions in many regions, where the State-nation model had not yet been realized, became a central issue. The collapse or weakening of large multinational states like the Austrian and Turkish Empires, and the unrest in multiracial regions (e.g., the Balkans under Turkish rule, including Greece and Bulgaria), contributed to this growing nationalist fervour.
Nationalistic ideologies became prominent, often leading to the exclusion and discrimination of minorities as nations reimagined their past and traditions to solidify their identities. This also sparked a burgeoning sense of a shared European and Western cultural heritage, highlighting the unity of these cultural roots. Nationalism itself evolved in two distinct directions:
- Civic Nationalism: this form was based on the idea that the nation consists of individuals united under a common political order. It grew out of the principle of equality established by the French Revolution, emphasizing citizenship and political allegiance over ethnicity.
- Ethnocultural Nationalism: rooted in Romanticism, this concept of nation emphasized cultural, religious, ethical, and linguistic unity, derived from the “spirit of the people” (Volksgeist). It presented the nation as a homogenous entity bound by shared traditions and heritage.
This ethnocultural nationalism led to the rise of exclusionary ideologies, including racism and anti-Semitism, which began to gain theoretical grounding on a so-called scientific basis. One early and significant political manifestation of these ideas was the “Dreyfus Affair” in France, which exposed deep divisions in French society and had widespread public impact.
Politically, nationalism gave rise to a wave of independence struggles throughout the 19th century. This movement culminated in the unification of Italy and Germany, and earlier sparked independence movements in Greece (1829) and Poland (1848). In Eastern Europe, Pan-Slavism emerged as a populist socialist-inspired movement, aimed at uniting Slavic nations under the leadership of Tsarist Russia. This movement sought to free the Orthodox Christian nations of Eastern Europe from Turkish domination, emphasizing their distinct cultural and religious identities.
However, nationalism also took more extreme forms. Pan-Slavism was accompanied by Pan-Germanism, which sought to unite German-speaking peoples under a single national banner, and both movements often carried elements of ethnocentrism. The rise of anti-Semitism became a significant and troubling feature of this period, while Zionism emerged as a corresponding movement for Jewish self-determination in response to growing persecution in Europe. These developments set the stage for significant political and social upheaval, with long-lasting effects that shaped both the 19th and 20th centuries.
Italian Risorgimento
The achievement of Italian unification in the 19th century was shaped by various political visions, each proposing a different path to unification. The dominant approaches included:
- Monarchical Unification (Camillo Benso, Count of Cavour): Cavour, Prime Minister of the Kingdom of Sardinia, advocated for a monarchical unification under the House of Savoy. His approach was diplomatic and strategic, relying on alliances with foreign powers like France to drive out Austrian influence from northern Italy. Cavour sought a unified Italy under the leadership of a constitutional monarchy
- Federalism (Vincenzo Gioberti): Gioberti, a philosopher and priest, envisioned a federal Italy, where the various states would remain autonomous but united under a loose confederation, with the Pope as the symbolic leader. His vision emphasized Italy’s cultural and religious unity without centralizing political power in one monarchy
- Republicanism (Giuseppe Mazzini): Mazzini, a fervent republican, advocated for a unified Italy based on democratic and republican principles. His vision of Italy’s unification was deeply tied to individual sacrifice and insurrectional action, reflecting his belief in humanitarianism and cosmopolitan ideals. Mazzini viewed Italy’s freedom as part of a broader struggle for human rights and democracy, and his efforts led to several failed uprisings in the pursuit of a republic
- Socialism (Giuseppe Garibaldi): Garibaldi, a national hero and leader of the famous Redshirts, combined elements of republicanism with a more populist and socially-oriented approach. He supported socialism and envisioned a united Italy that would address social inequalities, though his leadership ultimately aligned with the monarchical unification, working with Cavour to achieve the goal.
Massimo D’Azeglio (1796–1866) represented a more holistic vision of Italy’s unification, emphasizing a broader national identity that integrated various ideologies and interests. However, Giuseppe Mazzini’s political theory stood in stark contrast, focusing on individualistic, insurrectional action. Mazzini’s humanitarianism and cosmopolitanism were centered on the individual’s moral duty to contribute to the nation’s freedom, even at personal sacrifice.
Carlo Cattaneo (1801–1869), another key figure, took a different stance. Rooted in Enlightenment principles, Cattaneo promoted freedom, pluralism, and the strengthening of municipal autonomy. He was a proponent of federalism and cultural advancement for Italy, envisioning a decentralized structure that empowered local governments. Cattaneo’s forward-thinking vision extended beyond Italy, as he was among the first to use the term “United States of Europe,” emphasizing the importance of European unity and cooperation.
Each of these figures played a pivotal role in shaping the political discourse around Italian unification, contributing diverse perspectives that ranged from centralized monarchy to radical republicanism, from federalism to socialism, all of which were essential to Italy’s eventual unification in 1861.
Giuseppe Mazzini
In Mazzini’s philosophy, God holds a central place, as he saw God as not only present in nature and history but also embodied in “the people.” For Mazzini, the collective will of the people represented the divine force guiding human progress. This theological view positioned the people as the true protagonists of history, with each individual carrying within them a divine spark. Mazzini believed that human progress was driven by this divine presence, which acted as the conscience and moral compass of humanity.
Giuseppe Mazzini (1805–1872), a leading figure of the Italian Risorgimento and a powerful orator, played a crucial role in advocating for the unification of Italy. He founded the Giovine Italia (Young Italy) movement, which stood in contrast to the secretive Carboneria, proposing instead an open and clearly articulated vision for a unified Italy with a republican form of government. Mazzini’s vision was not only political but deeply moral and philosophical, intertwining politics with religion and ethics.
A key element of Mazzini’s thought was his concept of duty. He argued that individuals must be guided by a sense of duty, which was the primary moral imperative of life. For Mazzini, politics, morals, and religion were inseparable, as each derived from this duty to pursue justice, freedom, and the common good. He viewed political engagement as not merely a right but a moral obligation, and he believed that through such engagement, individuals would fulfil their divine purpose. Mazzini’s unique fusion of politics with spiritual ideals shaped his vision for a republican Italy, where the moral duty to both God and the nation would guide collective action and human progress.
American Civil War
The American Civil War was sparked by a fundamental contradiction within the United States Constitution: the legitimization of slavery in a country founded on democratic principles. President Abraham Lincoln’s measures to abolish slavery in newly acquired territories did not fully address the broader goals of abolitionists like Frederick Douglass, Lydia Maria Child, and Harriet Beecher Stowe, who sought equal rights for African Americans. Their efforts were rooted in the belief that emancipation should extend beyond mere abolition, encompassing civil and political equality for the black population.
A more comprehensive political theorization of abolitionist ideas can be found in the works of Henry David Thoreau (1817–1862). Thoreau, a staunch advocate of individual liberty, argued that when laws infringe upon fundamental rights, particularly those of minorities, individuals have a moral obligation to engage in civil disobedience. This principle became especially relevant during the Civil War, as it provided philosophical justification for African Americans to be enlisted in the Union Army, thus participating directly in the fight for their freedom.
The Civil War, which erupted between 1861 and 1862, was not only a conflict over slavery but also driven by economic factors. The “black revolution” coincided with a broader market revolution, which fundamentally altered the economic landscape of the United States. The industrialized North (The Union) stood in sharp contrast to the agrarian, slave-based economy of the South (the Confederacy). This economic divide made the clash between the two regions inevitable, with the Union’s victory signalling a profound shift in the nation’s political, economic, and social structures.
The defeat of the Confederacy also marked the rejection of the nullification doctrine championed by Southern politician John Caldwell Calhoun (1782–1850). Calhoun argued that states had the right to nullify federal laws they deemed unconstitutional, a theory that underpinned Southern resistance to federal authority. With the Union’s victory, Calhoun’s confederalist theories were discredited, and the power of the federal government was significantly strengthened, aligning with Abraham Lincoln’s vision of a unified nation.
The outcome of the Civil War represented a critical first step toward securing civil and political rights for African Americans. Although the road to full equality would be long and fraught with challenges, the Union’s triumph set the stage for the eventual expansion of rights and freedoms for black Americans. Moreover, the war solidified the federal government’s supremacy over individual states, a pivotal moment in the consolidation of central authority in the United States.
German unification and the action of Bismarck
Under the leadership of Otto von Bismarck, Germany experienced a historical phase dominated by militarism and power politics, while simultaneously witnessing the development of nationalist and liberal ideals. Pre-unification German politics were heavily focused on the national question, centered around the competing visions of a “Greater Germany” that would include Austria and a Prussian-led German national state. This debate reflected the broader ideological struggle that defined German politics during this period, particularly as nationalist sentiment grew alongside the need for liberal reforms.
The ideological vision that came to prominence in Germany from the 1820s onwards revolved around several key attitudes:
- A critique of liberalism, particularly its political and social principles
- Opposition to Bismarck’s policies, which culminated in the Prussian constitutional conflict (1862–1866)
- A growing awareness of the political, social, and economic changes in Western Europe, which influenced German thought but were adapted to suit nationalist ideals.
One of the most influential figures of this political vision was Heinrich von Treitschke (1834–1896), who was initially trained in Prussian liberalism but later became critical of pluralism and the diverse local traditions that characterized Germany. Treitschke’s vision rejected a pluralistic society in favour of a unified national identity, emphasizing the primacy of the State over regional distinctions. In his view, the tensions between society and the State in Germany could be resolved by rallying around the idea of the nation, an ideology that superseded internal divisions.
Unlike France and England, where strong centralized states had long been accepted, Germany had previously been divided into a myriad of microstates—approximately 300 before the Congress of Vienna in 1815. As Germany moved toward unification, it was faced with the challenge of creating a centralized state that could unite these fragmented regions under a common national ideal. The result was a State that, though centralized, found cohesion through a shared nationalistic vision of a “Great Germany.”
Treitschke’s intellectual journey reflects the broader evolution of German nationalism during this time. Initially critical of Bismarck’s policies, particularly the autocratic nature of his rule, Treitschke later became a staunch supporter of Bismarck and his vision for a strong, centralized German state. He theorized that the monarchy represented an impartial authority, superior to any form of confederal parliamentarism, and he legitimized German colonial expansion by linking it to a racial ideology. Treitschke’s ideas about “race” laid the groundwork for the rise of anti-Semitism in Germany, which would later become a defining feature of nationalist and exclusionary politics in the country.
Treitschke’s views, alongside Bismarck’s realpolitik, contributed to the consolidation of a German identity rooted in nationalism, power, and central authority. This period set the stage for the growth of German militarism and expansionist ambitions, ultimately shaping the trajectory of German history in the late 19th and early 20th centuries.
