Political Thought in 19th Century: Alexis De Tocqueville and John Stuart Mill
By Riccardo Piroddi
Abstract: Alexis de Tocqueville e John Stuart Mill sono stati due pensatori centrali del liberalismo ottocentesco. Tocqueville, osservando la democrazia statunitense, individua nella tensione tra libertà ed eguaglianza il nodo cruciale della modernità politica. Pur apprezzando il modello federale americano per la sua capacità di bilanciare poteri e tutelare le libertà individuali, Tocqueville mette in guardia dal rischio della “tirannia della maggioranza” e del dispotismo democratico, fenomeni che emergono quando la partecipazione civica si riduce e il potere si concentra. Propone correttivi come la separazione dei poteri, l’autonomia locale, una Costituzione rigida e la promozione della fraternità e della libertà religiosa. Mill, invece, contribuisce a rendere il liberalismo più sensibile ai problemi sociali. Pur formatosi nel solco dell’utilitarismo, supera la sua visione riduttiva dell’essere umano e sostiene la necessità di una distribuzione più equa delle risorse. Difende la libertà individuale, ma pone limiti legati alla tutela degli altri. In ambito elettorale propone il suffragio proporzionale con voto plurimo, favorendo i più istruiti e benestanti. Inoltre, si distingue per l’impegno nelle battaglie per i diritti delle donne, sostenendo attivamente il suffragio femminile e l’uguaglianza di genere.
Alexis de Tocqueville and democracy
Alexis de Tocqueville, a prominent French politician, sociologist, and historian (1805-1859), embarked on a journey to the United States as a young man to further his studies. Upon returning to France, he experienced the turbulent political landscape, marked by the Terror, the Restoration, and the rise of King Louis-Philippe. Tocqueville emerged as one of the foremost theorists of liberal-democratic thought, particularly known for his emphasis on the principle of democratic equality.
In Tocqueville’s view, the central political dilemma lies in balancing freedom and equality, a challenge he found to be ideally addressed in the political framework of the United States. In his renowned work, Democracy in America, he analyzed the unique political characteristics of the emerging federal democracy, illustrating how it differed from Europe’s entrenched political structures. Unlike Europe, where development was hindered by the rigid class systems maintained since the Middle Ages, the American model was unencumbered by such historical baggage and thus free from ideological constraints.
Tocqueville’s philosophical foundation was built on two key principles: freedom and equality. He associated freedom with a form of aristocratic governance, where only “the best” could rise to leadership positions. On the other hand, he linked equality with democratic governance, which he believed was inclined to focus on immediate and short-term interests to appease the electorate. However, Tocqueville cautioned that unchecked universal suffrage could lead to the formation of a majority that, if not properly balanced, might evolve into what he termed a “tyranny of the majority.” This, in turn, could give rise to a dangerous form of legal despotism, where the will of the majority oppresses minorities and individual freedoms.
According to Alexis de Tocqueville, several corrective measures are essential to safeguard freedom and prevent the potential degeneration of democracy into tyranny. These include: 1) A federal structure that strengthens local autonomies, ensuring power does not become overly concentrated in central institutions; 2) Judicial independence from the executive, enabling impartial interpretation of laws and upholding the rule of law over political authority; 3) The existence of a rigid Constitution that protects human rights and maintains shared governance principles, ensuring a balance of power summarized by the idea that “the majority governs, the minority controls”; 4) A revaluation of the revolutionary principle of “fraternity,” meant to foster solidarity and promote individual well-being; and 5) The peaceful coexistence of multiple religious denominations to safeguard freedom of conscience, a vital element that also reflects the broader civil and political liberties in society.
Tocqueville’s democratic theory, as articulated in Democracy in America, holds two primary strengths. First, it dispels the long-held belief, prevalent in 18th-century political thought, that democracy can only function in small or medium-sized states. Second, it reframes democracy not merely as a system for managing political representation, but as a reflection of the equality inherent among all citizens within a state. However, this vision is not without its flaws. It places excessive emphasis on individual rights—such as property, commerce, and personal freedom—while neglecting social rights, such as access to healthcare and work.
Tocqueville’s observations in Democracy in America also highlight how the United States’ fluid social mobility and individualism contrast sharply with Europe’s static class systems. He argues that the most significant threat to freedom does not come from centralized authority but from within society itself. This concern led Tocqueville to explore the concept of “democratic despotism.” He warned that the conditions of modern democracy, which encourage extreme individualism and erase distinctions between people, can foster a dangerous uniformity. When freedom becomes fragile due to its cultural underpinnings, even equality—when pushed too far—can threaten liberty.
Tocqueville’s insights form the foundation for legitimizing a new form of despotism. In his view, individuals, consumed by their personal interests, often shirk their responsibilities in public life and willingly cede power to a distant, impersonal state. This trend, which Tocqueville describes as the “tyranny of the majority,” involves the mass depoliticization of society, with individuals passively surrendering their autonomy. His analysis, which has been seen as almost prophetic, explains not only the return of Bonapartism in 19th-century France but also sheds light on the rise of 20th-century totalitarian regimes.
John Stuart Mill
John Stuart Mill (1806-1873) was a deeply influential thinker whose work significantly shaped the intellectual landscape of his time. He played a pivotal role in transitioning liberal democracy from abstract theoretical principles to practical considerations regarding its effective organization, positioning himself as a champion of the philosophy of progress. Raised within the utilitarian tradition, Mill eventually critiqued its narrow focus, advocating for a broader understanding of human nature that emphasizes the importance of “intellectual aspirations” and the pursuit of collective well-being over mere individual pleasure.
In the realm of economic policy, Mill made a key distinction between production, which he saw as governed by fixed, mathematical laws, and distribution, which he argued was shaped by historical and social circumstances. From this perspective, he proposed the necessity of redistributive state intervention to alleviate the tensions arising from class-based inequalities related to basic needs essential for survival. This, Mill believed, could help mitigate social unrest and ensure a fairer society.
Mill also addressed the role of government, advocating for a clear separation between the public and private spheres. He argued that state intervention in the private lives of individuals should only occur in the name of “self-protection”—that is, when one person’s exercise of freedom poses a threat to the freedom of others. In his view, personal liberty should be preserved unless it infringes upon the rights and liberties of others.
In terms of electoral theory, Mill supported a radically proportional system, but with notable qualifications. He believed that only those who were economically self-sufficient and had achieved a certain level of education should be allowed to vote. His theory of “plural voting” granted additional votes to certain individuals, such as the wealthy and well-educated, reflecting his belief that culture and wealth should carry greater political influence. This idea underscores Mill’s view that not all citizens are equally qualified to participate in the political process, and those with greater intellectual and material resources should have a more significant say in governance.
Moreover, Mill’s intellectual and political work was closely linked to the women’s emancipation movements in England and America. His marriage to Harriet Taylor, a prominent advocate for women’s rights, further fuelled his involvement in the movement. Mill became a vocal proponent of women’s suffrage and other feminist causes, lending his voice to the growing demands for gender equality during the 19th century. Through both his writings and his activism, Mill contributed significantly to the early development of feminist thought and the push for greater political and social rights for women.
