Italian Political Thought in Early 20th Century
(Part 1)
Democratic Catholicism, Liberalism, and Social Democracy
by Riccardo Piroddi
Abstract: Il pensiero politico cattolico in Italia si è evoluto da una posizione teologica astratta a un impegno concreto nelle questioni sociali e politiche. A partire dalla svolta di Leone XIII con l’enciclica Rerum Novarum, la Chiesa ha sostenuto il diritto alla proprietà privata insieme alla tutela dei lavoratori, promuovendo anche forme associative intermedie. Figure come Giuseppe Toniolo e Romolo Murri hanno contribuito a questa trasformazione, il primo con una visione organicista del bene comune, il secondo con una “democrazia cristiana” orientata all’alleanza tra Chiesa e proletariato. Ernesto Bonaiuti e don Luigi Sturzo hanno poi sviluppato percorsi autonomi, rispettivamente ispirati al socialismo cristiano e alla difesa della coscienza individuale nel contesto democratico. Parallelamente, il liberalismo italiano si è rafforzato in opposizione all’autoritarismo di Crispi e al fascismo. Giovanni Ferrero ha elaborato una filosofia politica centrata sul ruolo del timore come motore dell’ordine sociale, da superare attraverso il consenso e la legittimità del potere. Piero Gobetti e Carlo Rosselli hanno invece cercato di integrare liberalismo, democrazia e partecipazione popolare per contrastare il regime fascista. Gobetti puntava a una democrazia di massa guidata da un’élite intellettuale, mentre Rosselli proponeva un “socialismo liberale” capace di coniugare libertà e giustizia sociale, superando i dogmi del marxismo.
Democratic Catholicism
Catholic political thought, while rooted in abstract theological principles, gradually evolved into a more tangible force in political life. After a period marked by Pope Pius IX’s rigid stance against the Kingdom of Italy, Pope Leo XIII, through the encyclical Rerum Novarum, shifted the Church’s focus toward pressing social issues. This document, grounded in Neothomism, redefined the Church’s approach to society, advocating for a balance between the right to private property and the rights of workers. It also laid the groundwork for the Church’s active participation in social matters, encouraging the formation of “intermediate” associations of citizens, who filled roles that the State was unable to address, thereby contributing significantly to social development in areas with a strong Catholic presence.
One key figure, Giuseppe Toniolo (1845-1918), aimed to harmonize Catholic social thought with a corporatist, organic vision of society, emphasizing the pursuit of the common good and fostering the upward mobility of the lower classes. Another influential voice was Romolo Murri (1870-1944), who broke away from Thomism to establish a neo-Catholic line known as “Christian democracy.” Murri’s approach was defined by three central ideas: the alliance between the Church and the proletariat, the recognition of the state as a necessary institution for mediating social conflicts, and a reevaluation of democracy as a form of governance that requires those in power to be accountable.
Murri’s political activism led to the founding of the National Democratic League in 1905, a movement opposed to the pro-clerical policies supported by the Vatican. Meanwhile, the intellectual currents of Modernism, which sought to harmonize Catholic doctrine with modern philosophical thought, were embodied in Italy by Ernesto Bonaiuti (1881-1946). He interpreted the Christian message as Christian socialism, a fusion of religious and political ideals aimed at achieving social renewal through the deepening of religious sentiment.
Similarly, Luigi Sturzo (1871-1959) pursued a vision distinct from both Murri’s Christian democracy and the modernist controversies. Sturzo championed the engagement of Catholics with democratic state structures, advocating for the protection of individual autonomy, the freedom of private enterprise, and the supremacy of personal conscience over institutional control.
Liberalism and Social Democracy
In Italy the liberal tradition was not particularly developed also because the various orientations of politics were more concentrated in the reaction to Prime Minister Francesco Crispi’s authoritarian politics, to nationalism and fascism.
Giovanni Ferrero
A critical response to the rise of leaders like Crispi and Mussolini can be seen in the ideas of Giovanni Ferrero (1871-1943), an anti-fascist journalist whose liberal democratic philosophy sought peaceful resolutions to social conflicts. Ferrero’s thought developed in tandem with his recognition of a powerful driving force in politics: fear. Drawing inspiration from Hobbes, he argued that fear forms the basis of societal order, compelling individuals to submit to any regime, regardless of its nature, to avoid greater instability.
Ferrero contended that civilization itself arises from a universal state of fear, making it essential for any regime to prioritize peace and security, which in turn reduces the inherent uncertainty of human existence. The mechanism to achieve this, according to Ferrero, is power—specifically a coercive power that both spreads and manages fear. The paradox of power, and politics in general, is that it must use fear as a tool in order to mitigate and control fear within society.
In Ferrero’s view, power is the ultimate expression of fear, and only a strong, legitimate authority can truly liberate the community from this pervasive emotion. However, this paradox can be resolved when the coercive force of power is complemented by consensus—when citizens willingly adhere to shared values and principles, leading to societal growth from the ground up. This consensus not only fosters development but also legitimizes the power that governs, creating a cycle in which legitimacy itself helps free power from its dependence on fear. Only through this legitimacy can power transcend its coercive roots and establish a stable, fear-free society.
Democratic and social-democratic liberalism
In response to the rise of fascism and the need to reaffirm liberal principles, the political theories of Piero Gobetti (1901-1926) and Carlo Rosselli (1899-1937) emerge as significant. Both intellectuals sought ways to resist fascist domination by integrating mass participation into the political sphere.
Piero Gobetti, a Marxist-liberal writer and journalist, addressed the crucial issue of engaging the popular classes in political life. He viewed the working class as a pivotal political force capable of countering the authoritarianism of fascism. For Gobetti, the working masses, under the leadership of an elite of intellectuals inspired by liberal ideals, represented the most effective vehicle for establishing a “mass democracy” that could challenge and replace the fascist order.
On the other hand, Carlo Rosselli sought to fuse liberalism, socialism, and democracy, which he saw as the essential elements for creating a truly democratic state. In the aftermath of fascism’s rise, Rosselli believed socialism could be revived by shedding elements of its Marxist legacy and embracing liberal principles. Through this synthesis, the working class could lead a revolution of freedom that would result in a democratic, pluralistic, and decentralized state.
Rosselli’s ideology is encapsulated in the title of his seminal work Liberal Socialism (1930), which became the ideological foundation of the Giustizia e Libertà (Justice and Freedom) movement. He formulated this vision while in exile in Paris, escaping fascist persecution. According to Rosselli, socialism would be the future of Europe, but it would need to distance itself from Marxist determinism and dogma. Instead, socialism would have to align with the tenets of liberal civilization. In this new political order, the working class—not just the bourgeoisie—would become the central protagonist of social and political change.
