Enlightenment
By Riccardo Piroddi
Abstract: Tra la fine della seconda rivoluzione inglese (1688) e l’inizio della Rivoluzione francese (1789), in Europa si affermò l’Illuminismo, movimento intellettuale che esaltava la ragione quale strumento di emancipazione dall’ignoranza, dalla superstizione e dall’autorità tradizionale. Diffusosi in forme diverse soprattutto in Francia, Italia e Germania, l’Illuminismo promosse la libertà individuale, la critica al potere e il progresso della conoscenza, ispirandosi al pensiero inglese. La sua influenza fu decisiva nella ridefinizione dei rapporti tra società, Stato e religione: sostenne l’uguaglianza tra gli uomini, propose un governo razionale e appoggiò il dispotismo illuminato come via riformista. In ambito religioso, oppose alle religioni rivelate una “religione naturale” razionale, detta deismo, e difese la tolleranza come diritto individuale. Il risultato fu una netta separazione tra Chiesa e Stato, a favore di un ordine politico laico e fondato sulla ragione.
Between the conclusion of the Second English Revolution (1688) and the outbreak of the French Revolution (1789), Europe witnessed the rise of the Enlightenment. This intellectual movement emphasized the capacity of individuals to think independently, enabling humanity to break free from the intellectual “minority” that had characterized earlier centuries. The Enlightenment unfolded differently across Europe, most notably in France, Italy, and Germany.
At its core, the Enlightenment celebrated reason as the foundation of intellectual emancipation, a tool to dispel the ignorance, superstition, and obscurantism that had dominated prior eras. Central to this movement was the critique of tradition and authority, championing progress and placing unwavering faith in human reason and the natural world. The French philosophes, in particular, rejected the transcendental theories of the 17th century, focusing instead on political and moral issues, such as the defense of human rights and the challenge against privileges and tyranny.
The philosophy of the Enlightenment sought to restore humanity’s central role in the world, using reason to liberate individuals from the shackles of prejudice born of ignorance and superstition. This rethinking of humanity’s position in the universe also prompted a reevaluation of the problem of evil, moving away from theological interpretations and instead promoting an ideology of progress that culminated in the triumph of human reason.
As a result, the Enlightenment resolved the longstanding conflict between faith and reason in favor of the latter. Enlightenment thinkers exhibited skepticism toward religious faith while exalting individual freedom, drawing inspiration from English philosophers. They sought to redefine political spaces beyond the private sphere, promoting ideas that resonated across a broader European context. This gave rise to a cosmopolitan, culturally dominant, polyglot elite, shaping social relations in venues such as academies, salons, and bookshops—places where culture flourished outside the confines of royal courts. Their mission was to modernize institutions and advance progress across all domains of knowledge.
A pivotal outcome of this intellectual revolution, aided by the proliferation of the printing press, was the explosion of written works—books, essays, newspapers, periodicals, pamphlets, and especially the Encyclopédie, which was grounded in a secular worldview. Politically, the Enlightenment’s critique of power, particularly of the Ancien Régime, laid the groundwork for three key philosophical orientations:
- Society should be understood in its dynamic, multifaceted structure. Enlightenment thinkers were attuned to the profound social changes brought on by the first industrial revolution, which exposed the inadequacies of the Ancien Régime’s political framework
- The critique of class-based societies introduced the radical concept of equality among men. Enlightenment philosophers believed all individuals had the capacity for independent reasoning, although they often viewed “the people” as an undifferentiated, passive mass inclined to follow authority without question
- The utopian ideal of a society governed by reason. Although the Enlightenment called for administrative, judicial, and economic reforms, it paradoxically supported enlightened despotism. This form of governance combined power and knowledge, allowing monarchs to embrace the principles of the new philosophical spirit, while intellectuals gained access to the “arcana imperii”—the secrets of political power.
Another defining feature of the Enlightenment was its opposition to all confessional religions, which were viewed as manifestations of transcendent authority that undermined the autonomy of reason. In contrast to “revealed religions,” the Enlightenment advanced the idea of natural religion, considered the true form of faith, and advocated for tolerance as an essential component of this belief. Voltaire introduced the concept of natural religion in his Letters Concerning the English Nation (1723), describing it as a rejection of any religious doctrine that failed to align with reason. Central to this belief was the acceptance of a rational Supreme Being—creator of both the universe and humanity—who embodies reason itself, a doctrine known as Deism.
Deism, heavily influenced by the British philosopher John Toland (1670–1722), stood in stark opposition to Theism, which promotes blind and absolute faith in a transcendent God. Instead, Deism advocated for a rational, secular belief system grounded in nature and the ethical principles it inspires. These Deist ideas became central to the Enlightenment’s struggle for religious tolerance, particularly championed by Voltaire. He embraced the Deist tradition and upheld tolerance as an individual right, seeking to end religious conflicts and diminish their political consequences.
The theoretical outcome of this movement was the subordination of the Church to the State, cementing the separation of the political and religious spheres. This marked a definitive break, as the State was no longer beholden to religious authorities, establishing a new era where reason and secularism reigned in governance.
